Life-course persistent offenders (LCPO). Show extreme/violent anti-social behaviour from early childhood and on into adulthood. Brain scans show that LCPO individuals have less grey matter in some regions of the cortex, most of which are linked to anti-social behaviour (goal-directed behaviour, regulation of emotions and motivation). Possible causes are: (a) born with brain structure abnormalities, (b) bad childhoods or (c) both of these.
Most people with a low polygenic score for educational achievement have a lifelong struggle with self-control.They also tend to be late talking, don't use language very well, have difficulty learning to read, trouble concentrating and controlling thoughts, and struggle to remember facts and figures. This means that they find school frustrating and humiliating, and leave as soon as they can. A lack of qualifications leads to difficulty finding a job, and turning to a life of crime (and if good at it, brings self-esteem). LCPO are still locked up to keep the public safe.
Adolescent limited delinquents (ALD). Show a similar level of anti-social behaviour at around 18 but grow out of it. Deprivation, abuse and neglect allow vulnerability grow into anti-social/criminal behaviour. Many adolescents feel the need to prove themselves as adults and commit risky crimes, but once entered into adulthood, this lifestyle loses its appeal.
It is easy to walk away from offending if you have avoided having a criminal record. UK policy therefore tries to divert away from courts and jails, using approaches that aim to contain and change their behaviour without bringing formal charges.
Not-offending (NO). These individuals never commit anti-social behaviour. They simply don't want to break the law and adolescent culture no longer sees them as outcasts (the 'goody-goody' ones).
What we need to do.
- Develop treatments and rehabilitation protocols rather than invest in new prisons.
- Effective prevention programmes need to start in early childhood.
